2-1  Product costs are costs that are associated with manufactured goods until the time period during which the products are sold, when the product costs become expenses. Period costs are expensed during the time period in which they are incurred.

2-2  Product costs are also called inventoriable costs because they are assigned to manufactured goods that are inventoried until a later period, when the products are sold. The product costs remain in the Work-in-Process or Finished-Goods Inventory account until the time period when the goods are sold.

2-3  The most important difference between a manufacturing firm and a service industry firm, with regard to the classification of costs, is that the goods produced by a manufacturing firm are inventoried, whereas the services produced by a service industry firm are consumed as they are produced. Thus, the costs incurred in manufacturing products are treated as product costs until the period during which the goods are sold. Most of the costs incurred in a service industry firm to produce services are operating expenses that are treated as period costs.

2-4   The five types of production processes are as follows:

§   Job shop: Low production volume; little standardization; one-of-a-kind products. Examples include custom home construction, feature film production, and ship building.

§   Batch: Multiple products; low volume. Examples include construction equipment, tractor trailers, and cabin cruisers.

§   Assembly line: A few major products; higher volume. Examples include kitchen appliances and automobile assembly.

§   Mass customization: High production volume; many standardized components; customized combination of components. An example is the computer industry.

§   Continuous flow: High production volume; highly standardized commodity products. Examples include food processing, textiles, lumber, and chemicals.

2-5  The term mass customization is used to describe an industry such as the computer industry, where large numbers of identical components are mass produced, and then these components are combined in a customized way to customer specifications. For example, when a customer places an order for a Dell computer on line, the company assembles just the components requested by the customer, loads the requested software, and ships the customized computer system. Viewed in this light, the term mass customization is not internally inconsistent.

2-6  The cost of idle time is treated as manufacturing overhead because it is a normal cost of the manufacturing operation that should be spread out among all of the manufactured products. The alternative to this treatment would be to charge the cost of idle time to a particular job that happens to be in process when the idle time occurs. Idle time often results from a random event, such as a power outage. Charging the cost of the idle time resulting from such a random event to only the job that happened to be in process at the time would overstate the cost of that job.

2-7  Overtime premium is included in manufacturing overhead in order to spread the extra cost of the overtime over all of the products produced, since overtime often is a normal cost of the manufacturing operation. The alternative would be to charge the overtime premium to the particular job in process during overtime. In most cases, such treatment would overstate the cost of that job, since it is only coincidental that a particular job happened to be done on overtime. The need for overtime to complete a particular job results from the fact that other jobs were completed during regular hours.

2-8  The phrase “different costs for different purposes” refers to the fact that the word “cost” can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. Cost data that are classified and recorded in a particular way for one purpose may be inappropriate for another use.

2-9  The city of Tampa would use cost information for planning when it developed a budget for its operations during the next year. Included in that budget would be projected costs for police and fire protection, street maintenance, and city administration. At the end of the year this budget would be used for cost control. The actual costs incurred would be compared to projected costs in the budget. City administrators would also use cost data in making decisions, such as where to locate a new fire station.

2-10  A fixed cost remains constant in total across changes in activity, whereas the total variable cost changes in proportion to the level of activity.

2-11  The fixed cost per unit declines as the level of activity (or cost driver) increases. The cost per unit is reduced because the total fixed cost, which does not change as activity changes, is spread over a larger number of activity units.

2-12  The variable cost per unit remains constant as the level of activity (or cost driver) changes. Total variable costs change in proportion to activity, and the additional variable cost when one unit of activity is added is the variable cost per unit.

2-13  A volume-based cost driver, such as the number of passengers, causes costs to be incurred because of the quantity of service offered by the airline. An operations-based cost driver, such as hub domination, affects costs because of the basic way in which the airline conducts its operations. Greater control over a hub airport's facilities and services gives an airline greater ability to control its operating costs.

2-14  a.  Number of students: volume-based cost driver. This characteristic of the college relates to the quantity of services provided.

b.  Number of disciplines offered for study: operations-based cost driver. The greater the diversity in a college's course offerings, the greater will be the costs incurred, regardless of the overall size of the student body.

c.  Urban versus rural location: operations-based cost driver. A college's location will affect the type of housing and food facilities required, the cost of obtaining services, and the cost of transportation for college employees acting on behalf of the college.

2-15  Examples of direct costs of the food and beverage department in a hotel include the money spent on the food and beverages served, the wages of table service personnel, and the costs of entertainment in the dining room and lounge. Examples of indirect costs of the food and beverage department include allocations of the costs of advertising for the entire hotel, of the costs of the grounds and maintenance department, and of the hotel general manager's salary.

2-16  Costs that are likely to be controllable by a city's airport manager include the wages of personnel hired by the airport manager, the cost of heat and light in the airport manager's administrative offices, and the cost of some materials consumed in the process of operating the airport, such as cleaning, painting, and maintenance materials. Costs that are likely to be uncontrollable by the city's airport manager include depreciation of the airport facilities, fees paid by the airport to the federal government for air traffic control services, and insurance for the airport employees and patrons.

2-17  a.  Uncontrollable cost

b.  Controllable cost

c.  Uncontrollable cost

2-18  Out-of-pocket costs are paid in cash at or near the time they are incurred. An opportunity cost is the potential benefit given up when the choice of one action precludes the selection of a different action.

2-19  A sunk cost is a cost that was incurred in the past and cannot be altered by any current or future decision. A differential cost is the difference in a cost item under two decision alternatives.

2-20   A marginal cost is the extra cost incurred in producing one additional unit of output. The average cost is the total cost of producing a particular quantity of product or service, divided by the number of units of product or service produced.

2-21   The process of registering for classes varies widely among colleges and universities, and the responses to this question will vary as well. Examples of information that might be useful include the credit requirements and course requirements to obtain a particular degree, and a list of the prerequisites for each of the elective courses in a particular major. Such information could help the student plan an academic program over several semesters or quarters. An example of information that might create information overload is a comprehensive listing of every course offered by the college in the past five years.

2-22  The purchase cost of the old bar code scanners is a sunk cost, since it occurred in the past and cannot be changed by any future course of action. The manager is exhibiting a common behavioral tendency to pay too much attention to sunk costs.

2-23  a.  Direct cost

b.  Direct cost

c.  Indirect cost

d.  Indirect cost  

EXERCISE 2-24 (20 MINUTES)

1.   Advertising costs: Period cost, fixed

2.   Straight-line depreciation: Product cost, fixed, manufacturing overhead

3.   Wages of assembly-line personnel: Product cost, variable, direct labor

4.   Delivery costs on customer shipments: Period cost, variable

5.   Newsprint consumed: Product cost, variable, direct material

6.   Plant insurance: Product cost, fixed, manufacturing overhead

7.   Glass costs: Product cost, variable, direct material

8.   Tire costs: Product cost, variable, direct material

9.   Sales commissions: Period cost, variable

10.   Wood glue: Product cost, variable, either direct material or manufacturing overhead (i.e., indirect material) depending on how significant the cost is

11.   Wages of security guards: Product cost, variable, manufacturing overhead

12.   Salary of financial vice-president: Period cost, fixed

The general formula for solving all three cases is as follows:

EXERCISE 2-25 (CONTINUED)

Using this formula, we can find the missing amounts as follows:

EXERCISE 2-29 (30 MINUTES)
Mass customization is well suited to Dell Computer’s operations because of the company’s direct-selling approach, in which customers order customized computer systems, often on line. Then Dell orders just the components necessary to assemble the computer systems that have been ordered, and delivery is made in a relatively short period of time.
 

EXERCISE 2-30 (CONTINUED)

Explanatory Notes:

(a)  Total fixed costs do not vary with activity.

(c)  Variable cost per replacement = $28,000/700 = $40

 Total variable cost for 600 replacements = $40 ´ 600 = $24,000

(g)  Fixed cost per replacement = $56,000/600 = $93.33 (rounded)

(j )  Variable cost per replacement = $24,000/600 = $40

EXERCISE 2-31 (5 MINUTES)

Thomas Cleverly’s expenditure is a sunk cost. It is irrelevant to any future decision Cleverly may make about the land.

1.  The $12,500 is the opportunity cost associated with using the computer in the Department of Education for work in the governor's office.

2.  The $12,500 leasing cost should be assigned to the governor's office. It was incurred as a result of activity in that office.

1.  Your decision to see the game really cost you $100, the amount forgone when you refused to sell the ticket. A convenient way to think about this is as follows: You could have sold the ticket for $100, thereby resulting in a profit on the deal of $25 ($100 sales proceeds minus $75 out-of-pocket purchase cost). Instead, you went to the game, which left you relieved of your $75 out-of-pocket cost. The difference between the $75 reduction in your wealth and the $25 profit you could have had is $100. Thus, $100 is the true cost of going to the game.

2.  The $100 is an opportunity cost. At the time you made the decision to attend the game, the $75 you actually had paid for the ticket is a sunk cost. It is not relevant to any future decision.

1.  The marginal cost of a flight would include the aircraft fuel, wages of the flight crew and airport maintenance personnel, and the food and beverages consumed by the passengers and crew.

2.  The marginal cost would include the additional wages or commissions earned by the agency employees and the additional electricity used for light, heat, and computer equipment.

3.  The marginal cost of the skis would include the direct material. It is unlikely that labor and other costs would change with the addition of only one more product unit.

EXERCISE 2-36 (CONTINUED)

4.  The marginal cost would include any food and beverages consumed by the passenger and perhaps an imperceptible increase in fuel costs.

5.  In most cases, only the cost of the food and beverage consumed by the customer would be a marginal cost. It is unlikely that the restaurant would need to employ additional service personnel, dishwashers, and so on.

2.  The $7,500 in rental cost for sales office space is an opportunity cost. It measures the opportunity cost of using the former sales office space for raw-material storage.

3.  The cost of the finished-goods inventory on hand at year end, $57,500, is a sunk cost. It has already been incurred and is not relevant to any future decision.

PROBLEM 2-39 (20 MINUTES)

1.  These costs would appear on the following statements or schedules.
1.  Income statement
2.  Cost-of-goods-manufactured schedule
3.  Cost of-goods-manufactured schedule
4.  Balance sheet, cost-of-goods-manufactured schedule
5.  Income statement
6.  Income statement
7. Income statement
8.  Balance sheet
9.  Income statement
10.  Income statement
11.  Cost-of-goods-manufactured schedule
 
2.  The asset that differs among these businesses is inventory. Service businesses typically carry no (or very little) inventory. Retailers and wholesalers normally stock considerable inventory. Manufacturers also carry significant inventories, typically subdivided into three categories: raw material, work in process, and finished goods.
 
3.  The income statements of service businesses normally have separate sections for operating revenues, operating expenses, and other income (expenses). In contrast, those of retailers, wholesalers, and manufacturers disclose sales revenue, followed immediately by cost of goods sold and gross margin. Operating expenses are listed next followed by other income (expenses).
 
4.  The basic difference falls in the area of inventory. Traditional manufacturers produce finished goods, which are then placed in warehouses awaiting sale. In contrast, with a direct-sales, mass-customization firm, the receipt of a sales order triggers the manufacturing process as well as the purchasing system, the latter to acquire needed raw materials. Finished-goods and raw-material inventories (along with work in process) of mass-customizers are, therefore, much lower than the inventories carried by traditional firms.
 

1.  3 hours ´ ($14 + $4) = $54

 Notice that the overtime premium on the flight is not a direct cost of the flight.

2.  3 hours ´ $14 ´ .5 = $21

 This is the overtime premium, which is part of Gaines' overall compensation.

3.  The overtime premium should be included in overhead and allocated across all of the company's flights.

4.  The $87 is an opportunity cost of using Gaines on the flight departing from San Diego on August 11. The cost should be assigned to the August 11 flight departing from San Diego.

PROBLEM 2-44 (30 MINUTES)
1.  Manufacturing overhead: